RANI CHANNAMMA UNIVERSITY, BELAGAVI
HISTORY and ARCHAEOLOGY
B.A- V Semester
COMPULSORY PAPER-I History of India –British Rule 1707 To 1905
SHANKAR M. NINGANUR
SRES FIRST GRAFE COLLEGE, KALLOLI
9742054268
------------------
RANI CHANNAMMA UNIVERSITY, BELAGAVI
HISTORY and ARCHAEOLOGY
B.A- V Semester
COMPULSORY PAPER-I History of India –British Rule 1707 To 1905
Teaching Hours: 4 hrs per week 16x4 = 64hrs
Unit-I Advent of European and Expansion of British Power
A) Advent of Europeans and Anglo-French Conflicts
B) Consolidation of Power: Robert Clive and Warren Hastings-Their
Reforms and Foreign Policy
C) Lord Cornwallis Reforms
Unit-II British Power under Governor Generals
A) Lord Wellesley-His Subsidy Alliance
B) William Bentinck : His reforms
C) Lord Dalhousie: Reforms and Doctrine of Lapse
Unit- III New Revenue Systems and Indian Revolts
A) New Revenue Systems: Jamindari ,Raitwari, and Mahalwari.
B) The Great Revolt of 1857: Nature, Causes and Results
C) 1858 Queens Proclamation Act
Unit-IV Reforms of Viceroy’s in India
A) Lord Litton: Domestic and Foreign Policy
B) Lord Rippan: Reforms and Foreign Policy
C) Lord Curzon: Reforms and Foreign Policy
Unit-V Map Topics
A) Mark the Important Places of Great Revolt 1857
B) Places of Historical Places-
1)Kolkata 2)Madras 3)Bombay4)Calicut 5) Surat6)Pandichery 7) Plassey
8) Baxar 9) Salbha 10) Shrirangpattan
----------------
HISTORY OF INDIAN : BRITISH ROLE: 1707-1905
Unit-I Advent of European and Expansion of British Power
A) Advent of Europeans and Anglo-French Conflicts
Advent Of Europeans
As trade of both the company and of private individuals in Asia grew in the first half of the 18th century, Indian rulers came under increasing pressure to yield political concessions.
The disintegration of the Mughal Empire and the dispatch of forces to India in 1740s to fight one another (the British and French were at war with each other in Europe), by the British and the French on a large scale changed the scene and made possible the acquisition of a British Empire in India.
What led to the discovery of new routes to India?
In 1453, the Turks captured the capital of East roman Empire, “Byzantine” or “Constantinople” and hampers the commercial contract between East and West.
There Was great demand of Spices in European market, the European started to search another route to reach India.
Vasco Da Gama, through the cape of good hope, reached at Calicut in 1498.
The Hindu ruler of Calicut “Jamorian” welcomes Vasco Da Gama and made a trade relation with “Portugal”.
The Portuguese
Vasco-de-Gama landed at Calicut in 1498. In his wake cane the Portuguese to trade with India.
The system worked with remarkable success for about a century and then broke down because of the challenges from other European powers.
Almeida (1505-1509)
Francisco de Almieda was the first Governor of Portuguese in India.
He introduced the ‘Policy of Blue Water’.
He established 1st Portuguese factory at “Cochin”.
Albuquerque (1509-1515)
He was the real Portuguese founder in India.
In 1510,he captured Goa from – “Adil Shahi Sultan” Of Bijapur. (Adil Shahi Dynasty was founded by – “Yusuf Adil Shah”)
He encouraged Portuguese settlers to marry with Indian Woman. (Reason was to increase Portuguese Population).
The Portuguese power witnessed a decline by the end of 16th century.
In 1661, the King of Portugal gave Bombay to Charles II of England as dowry when he married the former’s sister.
In the end they were left with only Goa, Daman and Diu which they retained till 1961.
Note 1 – The Portuguese monopoly on Indian ocean was continued till 1595.
Note 2 – The 1st printing press was established by Portuguese at Goa in 1556.
Note 3 - The cultivation of Potato and Tobacco was started by Portuguese in India in 16th century.
Origin of Potato - South America
Origin of Tomato – China
Note 4 – Main reason for decline of the Portuguese power in India – They discovered Brazil. So, they picked their attention towards it and started neglecting India.
The Dutch
Holland sent the first fleet to the East in 1595.
The main purpose of the Dutch was the spice trade.
1605 – The 1st Dutch factory was established at “Masulipattanam” (Andhra Pradesh).
The Dutch replaced the Portuguese as the most dominant power in European trade with the East, including India.
The Dutch Conceded to English after their defeat in the ‘Battle of Bedera’ in 1759.
Note - At last they sold all their settlements to British India Company.
The Danish
In 1616, the 1st Danish factory was established at Pulicat.
Note - At last they sold all their settlement to British East India Company and went back.
Note – Dutch and Danish mainly focused in South East Asia.
The English
The timeline from formation of East India Company to grant of Magna Carta to English traders is given below:
1600 – Queen Elizabeth granted a charter with the rights of exclusive trading for 15 years to the East India Company.
1608 - English Went to Surat and applied to the Mughal court for privilege.
1609-1611 – William Hawkins, resided at Jahangir’s court but could do nothing because of Portuguese opposition.
1611 – The 1st British factory was established At Masulipattanum.
1613 – Jahangir issued a ‘farman’ permitting English to establish a factory permanently at Surat.
1615-1618 – Thomas Roe, ambassador of James-I, went to Jahangir’s court. He obtained the permission to establish factory in different parts of empire such as Agra, Ahmedabad and Baroch.
1668 - The Company obtained Bombay at the nominal rent of 10 pounds P.A. from Charles-II. Who had got it from the Portuguese as a part of the dowry of his wife Catharine Of Braganza.
1687 – East India Company replaced its headquarter from Surat to Bombaby.
1690 – Job Charnock, established A factory at Sutanati (in Bengal), (Job Charnock is the founder of Calcutta).
1714 –The company sent a messenger under John Surman to Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar to secure comprehensive commercial privilege throughout the Mughal Empire.
An English surgeon named William Hamilton accompanied to the messenger and cure painful disease of Farrukhsiyar.
1717 – Farrukhsiyar confirmed the privilege as a reward for this medical service.
· The right to English to trade in Bengal free of all duties but subject to the payment of Rs.3000 p.a.
· He allowed the right of coining and issuing money from Bombay Mill.
Note: The Farman of Farrukhsiyar was called as MAGNA CARTA for East India Company.
The Company continued its existence till 1858.
The French
1664 – The French East India Company was established by Colbert (he was a minister of French Emperor “Louis XIV”).
1668 – The 1st French factory was established at “Surat”.
1742 – The French governor general of Pondicherry “Dupleix” wanted to increase French influence in Southern India which was great confrontation with British East India Company and a war started between both which was known as “Carnatic Wars”.
The Carnatic Wars
Though the British and the French came to India for trading proposes, they were ultimately drawn into the politics of India.
Both had visions for establishing political power over the region.
The Anglo-French rivalry in India reflected the traditional rivalry of England and France throughout their histories.
Specifically, in India, the rivalry, in the form of three Carnatic wars decided once for all the English and not French were the more suitable ones to establish their rule all over India.
First Carnatic War (1740-48)
Background:
Carnatic was the name given by the Europeans to the Coromandel coast and its hinterland.
The First Carnatic War was an extension of the Anglo-French War in Europe which was caused by the Austrian War of Succession.
The First Carnatic War is remembered for the Battle of St. Thome (in Madras) fought between the French forces and the forces of Anwar-ud-din, the Nawab of Carnatic, to whom the English appealed for help.
The War of Austrian Succession
Between 1740 and 1748, most of Europe’s great powers were involved in a conflict caused by the question of Maria Theresa’s succession to the Austrian Habsburg crown.
The war involved all of Europe, with France, Prussia, Spain, Bavaria and Saxony arrayed against Austria and Britain.
The first two series of wars, the First Silesian War (1740–42) and the Second Silesian War (1744–45) were centered around Austria and Prussia.
The third war was centred on the continued conflict between France and Britain over colonial possessions in India and North America.
During the war, British troops proved their worth as soldiers.
The war was concluded with the Peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed in October 1748.
Under this treaty, France agreed to leave the Austrian Netherlands and give back Madras to Britain in return for Louisbourg.
Maria Theresa was also confirmed as Austrian ruler.
The Cause of the War:
Although France, conscious of its relatively weaker position in India, did not favour an extension of hostilities to India, the English navy under Commodore Curtis Bennett seized some French ships to provoke France.
The French Governor General, the Marquis Joseph-François Dupleix, appealed for protection from Anwar-ud-Din, the Nawab of Carnatic and he in turn warned the British that his province was neutral territory and that no attack on French possessions would be tolerated.
France retaliated by seizing Madras in 1746 with the help of the fleet from Mauritius, the Isle of France, under Admiral La Bourdonnais, the French governor of Mauritius.
The capture of Madras triggered a bitter argument between Dupleix and La Bourdonnais.
Dupleix wanted to hand the town over to the Nawab, as compensation for breaking the Nawab's decree of neutrality, while La Bourdonnais wanted to ransom the town back to the British.
This dispute dragged on into October, and eventually Anwar-ud-Din decided to intervene. He sent an army of 10,000 men under the command of his son Mahfuzz Khan to besiege the French in Madras.
Result:
A small French army under Captain Paradise defeated the strong Indian army under Mahfuz Khan at St.Thome on the banks of the River Adyar.
The First Carnatic War ended in 1748 when the Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle was signed bringing the Austrian War of Succession to a conclusion.
Under the terms of this treaty, Madras was handed back to the English, and the French, in turn, got their territories in North America.
Significance:
War was an eye-opener for the Europeans in India: it revealed that even a small disciplined army could easily defeat a much larger Indian army.
Further, this war adequately brought out the importance of naval force in the Anglo-French conflict in the Deccan.
Second Carnatic War (1749-54)
Background:
The background for the Second Carnatic War was provided by the Anglo-French rivalry in India.
Even after the end of the First Carnatic War, the peace in India was short lived.
In 1748 Nizam-ul-Mulk, the Mughal governor of the Deccan and semi-independent Nawab of Hyderabad died.
The succession to his position was contested, and the British and French were soon dragged into the fighting between the candidates.
Dupleix, the French governor who had successfully led the French forces in the First Carnatic War, sought to increase his power and French political influence in southern India by interfering in local dynastic disputes to defeat the English.
The resulting Second Carnatic War lasted from 1749 until 1754, and saw the British strengthen their position in southern India.
The Cause of the War:
The opportunity was provided by the death of Nizam-ul-Mulk, the founder of the independent kingdom of Hyderabad, in 1748, and the release of Chanda Sahib, the son-in-law of Dost Ali, the Nawab of Carnatic, by the Marathas in the same year.
In Hyderabad, the accession of Nasir Jang, the son of the Nizam, to the throne of Hyderabad was opposed by Muzaffar Jang, the grandson of the Nawab, who laid claim to the throne saying that the Mughal Emperor had appointed him as the governor of Hyderabad.
Further south there were two candidates for the Nawabship of the Carnatic, a subsidiary post officially dependent on the Nizam.
Anwar-ud-Din had only been appointed Nawab of the Carnatic in 1743, after Nizam-ul-Mulk had been forced to intervene to restore order in the province.
Anwar-ud-Din was one of the Nizam's officers.
Appointment of Anwar-ud-Din was resented by Chanda Sahib
Chanda Sahib was the son-in-law of a previous Nawab of the Carnatic, Dost Ali (1732-39).
He had been an effective ally to the French, before in 1741 being besieged in Trichinopoly by the Marathas.
The French supported the claims of Muzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahib in the Deccan and Carnatic, respectively, while the English sided with Nasir Jang and Anwar-ud-din.
Course of the War:
The combined armies of Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib and the French defeated and killed Anwar- ud-din at the Battle of Ambur (near Vellore) in 1749.
The Nawab was killed early in the war and left behind his son Mohammed Ali to claim the Nawabship.
Muzaffar Jang was installed as the Nizam of Hyderabad and the subahdar of Deccan, and Dupleix was appointed governor of all the Mughal territories to the south of the River Krishna.
Territories near Pondicherry and also some areas on the Orissa Coast (including Masulipatnam) were ceded to the French.
However, Muzaffar Jung was killed a couple of months later and the French installed Muzaffar’s uncle Salabat Jung as the new Nizam.
Having failed to provide effective assistance to Muhammad Ali at Trichinopoly, Robert Clive of the English company (first British administrator of the Bengal Presidency), put forward the proposal for a diversionary attack on the Governor Saunders of Madras.
He suggested a sudden raid on Arcot (the capital of the Carnatic) to divert the pressure from Trichinopoly in which the British won.
After several battles fought, Chanda Sahib was executed by Muhammad Ali who was later installed as the Nawab of Carnatic.
Result:
The French authorities, annoyed at the heavy financial losses that Dupleix’s policy involved, decided to recall him in 1754.
Charles Robert Godeheu succeeded Dupleix as the French Governor-General in India.
Godeheu adopted a policy of negotiations with the English and signed the Treaty of Pondicherry with them under which the English and the French agreed not to interfere in the quarrels of native princes.
Also, each party was left in possession of the territories actually occupied by them at the time of the treaty.
Implications:
It became evident that the countenance of Indian authority was no longer necessary for European success; rather Indian authority itself was becoming dependent on European support.
Muhammad Ali in the Carnatic and Salabat Jang in Hyderabad became clients rather than patrons.
Third Carnatic War or the Battle of Wandiwash (1758-63)
Background:
In Europe, when Austria wanted to recover Silesia in 1756, the Seven Years War (1756-63) started.
Britain and France were once again on opposite sides.
Course of War in India:
In 1758, the French army under French General, Count Thomas Arthur de Lally captured the English forts of St. David and Vizianagaram in 1758.
Now, the English became offensive and inflicted heavy losses on the French fleet under Admiral D’Ache at Masulipatnam.
Battle of Wandiwash:
The decisive battle of the Third Carnatic War was won by the English on January 22, 1760 at Wandiwash (or Vandavasi) in Tamil Nadu.
General Eyre Coote of the English totally routed the French army under Count de Lally and took Marquis de Bussy as prisoner.
Pondicherry was gallantly defended by Lally for eight months before he surrendered on January 16, 1761.
With the loss of Pondicherry, Gingee and Mahe, the French power in India was reduced to its lowest.
Lally, after being taken as prisoner of war at London, returned to France where he was imprisoned and executed in 1766.
Result and Significance:
The Third Carnatic War proved decisive.
The third war ended with the Treaty of Peace of Paris (1763) under which Pondicherry and Chandannagar were returned to France but they could only have trading activities in them.
Although the treaty restored to the French their factories in India, the French political influence disappeared after the war.
Thereafter, the French, like their Portuguese and Dutch counterparts in India, confined themselves to their small enclaves and to commerce.
The English became the supreme European power in the Indian subcontinent.
Conclusion
The victory at Wandiwash left the English East India Company with no European rival in India. Thus they were ready to take over the rule of the entire Country.
Significantly, in the Battle of Wandiwash, natives served in both the armies as sepoys.
It makes one think that irrespective of which side won, there was an inevitability about the fall of India to European invaders.
Causes for the English Success and the French Failure
Lesser Governmental Control Over British: The English company was a private enterprise.
This created a sense of enthusiasm and self-confidence among the people.
With less governmental control over it, this company could take instant decisions when needed without waiting for the approval of the government.
The French company, on the other hand, was a State concern.
It was controlled and regulated by the French government and was hemmed in by government policies and delays in decision-making.
Superior British Navy and Bigger Cities Under Control: The English navy was superior to the French navy; it helped to cut off the vital sea link between the French possessions in India and France.
The English held three important places, namely, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras whereas the French had only Pondicherry.
British were Strong with Funds: The French subordinated their commercial interest to territorial ambition, which made the French company short of funds.
In spite of their imperialistic motives, the British never neglected their commercial interests.
The British always had the funds and the consequent sound financial condition to help them significantly in the wars against their rivals.
Superior British Commanders: A major factor in the success of the English in India was the superiority of the commanders in the British camp.
In comparison to the long list of leaders on the English side - Sir Eyre Coote, Major Stringer Lawrence, Robert Clive and many others, there was only Dupleix on the French side.
B) Consolidation of Power: Robert Clive and Warren Hastings-Their
Reforms and Foreign Policy
Robert Clive (born 1725) was appointed as Clerk in the service of the East India Company in 1743. The Seize of Arcot (1761) during Second Carnatic War gave a major boost to his career and he became deputy governor of Fort St. David at Cuddalore in 1755. From 1758 to 1760 and then 1765 to 1767, he remained Governor of the Presidency of Fort William.
During his tenure, British East India Company won battle of Plassey, Battle of Chinsura and Battle of Buxar. These battles paved the way for British conquest of Northern India. Clive also imposed Dual system of administration in Bengal which ruined its economy.
Contents
Battle of Plassey, 1757
Battle of Chinsura, 1759
Battle of Buxar October 22, 1764
Dual System of Government
The Corruption in East India Company and its fall outs
Death of Clive
Battle of Plassey, 1757
The last Nawab of Bengal Siraj ud-Daulah was a friend of French and was wary of the growing intervention of the British in the affairs of the province. Irked Nawab marched upon Calcutta with a large army and seized the site of Fort Williams. 146 British who surrendered were stuffed in a room of 18 square feet and 123 out of them were suffocated to death. This incident is called Black Hole of Calcutta (1756). After this event, British made a secret treaty with Mir Zafar, promising to place him on the throne of Bengal if he helps British. On 23 June 1757, a battle was fought between British and Siraj-ud-Daula’s forces supported by French as a part of Seven years war (in Europe).
The forces of Nawab were defeated and Nawab fled the scene but was pursued, captured and executed on 2 July 1757. Role of some of the traitors such as Jagat Seth (a Marwari banker), Amir Chand, Rai Durlabh, Ghaseti Beghum (aunt of Nawab) helped in defeat of the Nawab.
After this battle, Mir Jafar was placed as a titular Nawab of Bengal in 1757. The British extracted enormous sums from Mir Jafar as the price of his elevation. But he could not bear the extortionist policies of the British for long. When he realized that British expectations were limitless he tried to wriggle out of their grip. For this he took the help of the Dutch.
Battle of Chinsura, 1759
Mir Jafar opened secret negotiations with the representatives of the Dutch East India Company to bring troops against the British. The Dutch, seeing an opportunity to enhance the influence sent a force at Chinsura, but they were defeated by the British army. The battle was fought both in sea and land. The Victories British overthrew the titular Nawab Mir Jafar and his placed his son in law Mir Kasim as Nawab of Bengal. Mir Kasim soon began to show a will of his own, and to cherish dreams of independence. He eventually shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Munger in Bihar where he raised an independent army.
The major issue of Mir Kasim with British was of trade. During Farrukhsiyar reign in 1717, British East India Company had purchased duty-free trading rights in all of Bengal for a mere three thousand rupees a year. Mir Kasim opposed that the imperial Dastak was discriminatory. The British could trade without paying taxes but the other local merchants with dastaks were required to pay up to 40% of their revenue as tax.
In a response to this, Mir Kasim abolished all taxes on the local traders as well. This upset the British and hostility was renewed. In 1763, there was a skirmish between British and forces of Company. Mir Kasim was defeated and he fled to take refuge with Nawab of Awadh Shuja-ud-Daula.
When Mir Kasim took shelter from Shuja-ud-Daula, British asked him to deliver him to them. The Nawab refused to do so. On October 23, 1764, there was a decisive battle at Buxar.
Battle of Buxar October 22, 1764
On October 22-23, 1764, the decisive Battle of Buxar was fought between British on one side and combined forces of Mir Kasim, Mughal emperor Shah Aalam II and Shuja-ud-Daula at other side. However, the three separate allies could not cooperate with each other and were defeated. This war battle was won in absence of Clive who was in England at that time. The British forces were commanded by Major Hector Munro. After this battle, Shah Aalam II submitted to the British. Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula fled from the scene and took refuse to Rohilla. Mir Kasim also fled and died a few years later in extreme obscurity.
In 1765, Clive returned styled Lord Clive as Governor General of Bengal for the second time. By this time, the British had shown their military supremacy in India for, the Battle of Buxar was tough contested bout, than the Battle of Plassey, which was won by deceit.
The important outcome of the Battle of Buxar was the Treaty of Allahabad which was signed between Lord Clive and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, who had submitted to the British in the battle. As per this treaty:
Mughal Emperor granted Fiscal Rights (Diwani) or right to administer the territory and collect taxes to the East India Company at Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Thus, the British became the masters of fate of the people of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa and now they would collect the revenue.
In lieu of this Right, the Company gave an annual tribute of 26 Lakh Rupees to the Mughals
The districts of Kora and Allahabad were returned to Mughal Emperor.
Awadh was returned to Shuja-ud-Daulah but Allahabad and Kora was taken from him.
The Nawab of Awadh paid 53 Lakhs rupees of war indemnity to the British.
Thus, Clive, in person settled the fate of almost half of the Northern India.
The fiscal administration of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa and the territorial jurisdiction of the Northern Circars is called the Dual System of Government.
Dual System of Government
Under this system, the company carried out the Diwani (Fiscal) jurisdiction so Company was Diwan. Nawabs carried out the Nizamat (territorial) jurisdiction so they were Nizam. This system of separate Diwan and Nizam is called Dual Administration. However, the real authority was East India Company in the Nizamat also. The biggest fallout of this system was that the Indian Merchants were reduced to beggars. On the one side, British kept enjoying the duty free trade; the Indian merchants were to pay around 40% of the revenue.
The peasants were now under the British revenue collection. The British left no stone unturned to extract each penny. There was zero activity in the name of development so Peasants started turning beggars. The new confusing administrative machinery, which was not properly set up, created chaos. The Officials of the British East India Company such as Lord Clive became extremely rich due to the clandestine private trade.
This was the beginning of the Economic loot from India, which made England the wealthiest country in the world in the 19th and 20th century. The consequence of this steady drain upon the production of the country soon began to be felt.
The Corruption in East India Company and its fall outs
After winning the Battle of Plassey, the 35 year young man Clive returned to England in 1760 with a fortune of 3 Lakh Pounds and a rent of 27 thousand Pounds per year. Further, the treasure of Nawab Sirajuddaula was looted in such a way that 20% was appropriated to the Zamindars and the corrupt company officials. In 1770, there was a catastrophic famine in Bengal. This famine was so ruinous that every 1 out of 3 people in Bengal (Plus Bihar & Orissa) died and the population of 30 million was reduced to 10 million.
The immediate reason of this famine was that the rains were no good and the company, which was now Diwan of the region, increased the land tax by 10% in April 1770. One partial reason was that Opium cultivation was something the corrupt British wanted from the peasants of India, which could maximize their trade profits. The Indians and the British were collectively responsible for this disaster.
Death of Clive
Clive left India in 1767, but the Evening of his life was not peaceful. There were numerous voices in Britain about his through corruption in India and his “conduct” was cross examined in the British Parliament. He was vindicated, but despite that, he stabbed himself to death with a pen Knife on 22 November 1774. The suicide was partially attributed to his Opium addiction.
Warren Hastings – Brief Introduction
Warren Hastings (1732 – 1818) became the first Governor of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal) in 1772 and the first Governor-General of Bengal in 1774 till he resigned in 1785.
He started his career as a writer (clerk) in the East India Company at Calcutta in 1750.
In 1758, he became the British resident at Murshidabad, the capital of Bengal, after Mir Jafar was installed as the Nawab after the Battle of Plassey.
During his term, the First Anglo-Maratha war and the second Anglo-Mysore war were fought.
The Regulating Act of 1773 was passed during his term.
He supported Sir William Jones in the formation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1785.
Reforms of Warren Hastings
The financial position of the Company became worse and the difficulties were intensified by famine. When Warren Hastings assumed the administration of Bengal in 1772, he found it in utter chaos. Warren Hastings realized the immediate need for introducing reforms.
Abolition of the Dual System: The East India Company decided to act as Diwan and to undertake the collection of revenue by its own agents. Hence, the Dual System introduced by Robert Clive was abolished. To improve the finances of the Company Hastings reduced the allowance of Nawab to half and also stopped the annual payment to Mughal Emperor.
Revenue Reforms: Due to abolition of Dual system the responsibility to collect revenue came to Company. For that purpose a Board of Revenue was established at Calcutta to supervise the collection of revenue. English Collectors were appointed in each district.
Reorganisation of the Judicial System: The Nawab who was hitherto the chief administrator of justice, misused his powers. Often, his judgments were careless. The zamindars who acted as judges at lower levels within their own areas were highly corrupt and prejudiced. On the whole, the judicial institution suffered from extreme corruption.
Each district was provided with a civil court under the Collector and a criminal court under an Indian Judge. Appellate courts, one for civil cases and another for criminal cases, were established at Calcutta.
The highest civil court of appeal was called Sadar Diwani Adalat, which was to be presided over by the Governor and two judges recruited from among the members of his council. Similarly, the highest appellate criminal court was known as Sadar Nizamat Adalat which was to function under an Indian judge appointed by the Governor-in-Council. Experts in Hindu and Muslim laws were provided to assist the judges.
Trade Regulations: Warren Hastings abolished the system of dastaks, or free passes and regulated the internal trade. He reduced the number of custom houses and enforced a uniform tariff of 2.5 percent for Indian and non-Indian goods. Private trade by the Company’s servants continued but within enforceable limits.
Other Reforms:
Weavers were given better treatment and facilities were made to improve their condition.He also introduced a uniform system of pre-paid postage system. A bank was started in Calcutta.He improved the police in Calcutta and the dacoits were severely dealt with.
THE REFORMS OF LORD CORNWALLIS (1786-1793)
The Reforms of Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793) and Cornwallis Code
Lord Cornwallis had no knowledge and experience of Indian affairs when he reached India in 1786. He took advantage of the reforms effected by Warren Hastings. Besides, he was ably helped by Charles Grant and Sir John Shore in revenue administrator while Sir William Jones, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, helped him in carrying out his judicial reforms. An elaborate Code of Regulations known as the “Cornwallis Code” was framed and published in 1793.
Cornwallis Code
The Cornwallis Code is a body of legislation passed in 1793 by the East India Company. This code was developed by Cornwallis who was the governor of Bengal from 1786 to 1793.
The Cornwallis Code is known for some significant provisions made in it. These provisions related to governance, law and order, judicial and civil administration. The best known provision was the permanent settlement enacted in 1793. This act established a system of revenue collection which was followed until the 20th century.
Reforms in different fields of administration by Lord Cornwallis
He carried out the following reforms in different fields of administration.
The Permanent Settlement in Bengal
The revenue administration was a complicated affair and no permanent decision was taken about it prior to the arrival of Lord Cornwallis in India. The Directors had instructed Lord Cornwallis that after assessing the revenue records of some past years, a settlement should be made with zamindars for some years but with a view that it could be made permanent in the near future. These instructions of the Directors were the primary cause of the Permanent Settlement in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa concerning revenue.
We have discussed about the permanent settlement in this article > Permanent Settlement Features
Reforms in Services
Acceptance of bribery and presents was the worst form of corruption in the civil services. Besides, the servants of the Company engaged themselves in private trade in the name of their relatives and therefore, neglected the trade of the Company. Cornwallis took some measures to stop these corrupt practices. On the one hand, he banned taking of bribes and presents and stopped private trade carried on by the servants of the Company in the name of their relatives. On the other hand, he increased the salaries of the servants so that they could become free from monetary temptations. Besides, as far as possible, he appointed only Englishmen to posts of responsibility. An Indian could not get a higher assignment than the rank of a Subedar in the army while in civil services he could not rise higher than the position of a Munsif.
Administrative Reforms
Lord Cornwallis concentrated on honesty and attempted to reduce the expenditure in carrying the administration. He carried out a few following reforms concerning administration:
The number of districts in Bengal was reduced from twenty five to twenty three.
Several unnecessary posts were abolished.
The Collectors were deprived of their right of dispensing civil justice. It was handed over either to revenue boards or to civil courts.
Cornwallis considered only merit while making appointments in the Services.
Trade Reforms
Cornwallis prohibited private trade. Besides, he took up the following measures:
Duties concerning the trade of the Company were restored to the Trade Board.
The number of the members of the Board of Trade was reduced.
Trade representatives were appointed on commission basis to purchase goods for the Company and to sell its goods.
Police Administration
Lord Cornwallis took away the rights of the landlords of maintaining law and order. He established police posts at different places and kept policemen under Indian sub-inspectors there to look after peace and order in their respective areas. Afterwards, Indian sub-inspectors were replaced by Englishmen as far as could be possible. The magistrates were given the responsibility to supervise their working.
Judicial Reforms
Cornwallis separated the judiciary from the executive and attempted to provide justice to the common men. In this field, he tried to perfect the system established by Warren Hastings. He carried out the following reforms :-
Civil Courts
The distinction between civil suits and revenue disputes was abolished.
A regular hierarchy of courts was constituted. At the bottom of the organisation were the courts of Munsifs who were Indians. These courts were authorised to decide cases of disputes involving not more than rupees fifty.
Above the courts of Munsifs were the courts of Indian Registrars who could take up cases involving disputes up to rupees two hundred only.
Then there were district courts which heard appeals from the lower courts and wherein English judges decided disputes with the help of Indian assessors.
Above district courts were four provincial courts established at Patna, Dacca, Murshidabad and Calcutta respectively. These courts dealt with original cases and also heard appeals from the lower courts. These courts were placed under three English judges who decided cases with three native assessors.
At the top of all was the Sadar Diwani Adalat at Calcutta wherein the cases were decided by the governor-general and the members of his council with the assistance of Chief Qazi, two Muftis and two Pandits.
Over and above it, an appeal could be made to the king of Britain and his Council.
These courts could decide the cases involving Europeans as well. Besides, many rules were framed concerning the functioning of these courts.
Criminal Courts
Circuit Courts which moved from one place to another for dispensing justice were established in districts under English judges.
Above them were four provincial courts established at Patna, Dacca, Murshidabad and Calcutta respectively. English judges presided over these courts. These courts could award death sentence to a person but with the prior permission of the Sadar Nizamat Adalat.
The Sadar Nizamat Adalat was established at Calcutta where the cases were decided by the “Governor-general-in-Council”. It was the highest criminal court. However, an appeal against its judgement could be made to the King of Britain and his Council.
In all these courts, the English judges were assisted by native assessors.
Besides the establishment of different courts, some following measures were also passed:
It was decided that the civil disputes would be decided according to community laws, viz., the cases of the Hindus would be decided by the Hindu laws while the cases of the Muslims would be decided by the Muslim laws.
The criminal cases would be decided on the basis of Muslim laws.
The government officials were held responsible for their actions in their official capacity and therefore, cases would be instituted against them in their official capacity.
The Governor-general-in-Council had the right to pardon or reduce the punishment given to an individual. However, the last appeal for pardon could be made by an individual to the “British King in Council.”
The Supreme Court also remained there. It, however, decided the cases involving only the Europeans.
Conclusion
Thus, Cornwallis carried out reforms in different fields of administration. These reforms were regarded as largely successful and no attempt was made by the government of the Company to change them for the next twenty years. Lord Cornwallis, however, was no innovator in reforms. In some cases he followed the instructions of the “Court of Directors” and in some others, he was benefited by the measures carried out by Warren Hastings. P.E. Roberts writes: “He actually raised the superstructure on a foundation which was laid down by Warren Hastings.” The reforms of Cornwallis were not free from certain serious defects. His Permanent Settlement certainly harmed the interests of peasants. In the same way, the establishment of judicial courts alone did not benefit the common people of India. The system was costlier and therefore, only rich people derive benefit from it. It also involved long delays which again went against the poor and the oppressed.
Points to remember
Among several reforms carried out by Cornwallis, the most prominent one was the Permanent Settlement concerning the revenue.
Cornwallis banned the taking of bribes and presents, stopped private trade carried on by the servants of the Company in the name of their relatives, increased the salaries of the civil servants and appointed only Englishmen to posts of responsibility.
Cornwallis reduced the number of districts from 25 to 23, abolished several posts, deprived collectors of the function of dispensing civil justice and made appointments on merit only.
He entrusted duties concerning trade to trade-board, reduced the number of the members of the board and appointed representatives on commission basis.
Cornwallis established police posts and appointed police sub-inspectors for maintaining law and order.
Lord Cornwallis separated the judiciary from executive, abolished the distinction between civil and revenue courts and established a hierarchy of civil courts, viz., courts of Munsifs, then of the Registrars, then district courts, then four provincial courts, and at the top was the Sardar Diwani Adalat.
For criminal cases, circuit courts in districts and four provincial courts at Patna, Dacca, Murshidabad and Calcutta were established and, at the top was the Sardar Nizamat Adalat.
The civil cases were to be decided according to community laws and the criminal cases on the basis of Muslim laws.
Besides, government officials were held responsible for their actions; powers of pardon was left to the Governor-general-in-Council; and, Cornwallis Code was framed in 1793.
These reforms of Lord Cornwallis were not free from defects but were useful and formed the basis of future reforms.
Unit-II British Power under Governor Generals
A. Subsidiary Alliance System
Subsidiary Alliance System was first introduced by the French East India Company Governor Joseph Francois Dupleix. It was later used by Lord Wellesley who was the Governor-General of India from 1798 to 1805. Early in his governorship, Lord Wellesley adopted a policy of non-intervention in the princely states. However, later, he adopted the policy of forming subsidiary alliances, which played a major role in the expansion of British rule in India.
Different Forms of Subsidiary Alliance
The subsidiary alliance took different forms in its gradual evolution:
In its first form, the English agreed to help the native rulers with a fixed force in return for a fixed sum of money.
In its second form, the English agreed to maintain a fixed and permanent military force to help their ally in return for a fixed annual amount of money. The subsidiary force, however, was kept in the territory of the Company.
In its third form, the English not only agreed to maintain a permanent and fixed subsidiary force to help their ally in return for a fixed annual amount of money but also kept the force within the territory of the ally.
In its fourth and final form which was introduced by Lord Wellesley, the English agreed to maintain a permanent and fixed subsidiary force within the territory of their ally. However, in return, they did not take money but took over a part of the territory of the ally permanently to themselves. This is how the subsidiary alliance system became a means of extending the Company’s territory in India.
Features of Subsidiary Alliance System
The subsidiary alliance in India was planned and executed by Lord Wellesley to extend the company’s rule in India but this term was inititally introduced by French Governor Dupleix.
The native Indian ruler who entered into Subsidiary Alliance with the British had to dissolve his own armed forces while accepting the British forces in his territory.
He also had to pay for the maintenance of the British army. If he failed to make the payment, a portion of his territory was taken away and ceded to the British.
In return of this, the British would protect the native state against any foreign attack or internal revolt with the help of their army.
Although the British promised non-interference in internal affairs of the native Indian state, this was rarely maintained.
The Indian state who entered into subsidiary alliance with the Britishers could not enter into any alliance with any other foreign power. It means, he could also not employ any other foreign nationals other than Englishmen in his service. And, if he were employing any, on the signing of the alliance, he had to terminate them from his service. The idea was also to curb the influence of the French.
After entering into the subsidiary alliance with the Britishers, the native Indian state could also not enter into any political connection with another Indian state without the approval of the British.
The native Indian ruler, thus, lost all of his powers in respect of foreign affairs and the military affairs.
Thereafter, he virtually lost all his independence and became a British ‘protectorate’.
Terms of Subsidiary Alliance
In the fourth and final phase of Subsidiary Alliance system, Lord Wellesley added the following terms to the alliance –
A British resident was kept at the court of the native ruler.
The native ruler was not allowed to employ any European or a citizen of a state which was enemy of the Britishers in his service.
The native ruler could not maintain any friendly relation with any other ruler without the approval of the Britishers.
The Britishers agreed to protect the territory of the native ruler from foreign aggressions or attacks.
The Britishers had agreed not to interfere in the internal affairs of the native rulers.
Every native ruler who entered into the subsidiary alliance with the English had to accept all the above mentioned terms besides permanently ceding a part of his territory to the Britishers in the final phase of Subsidiary Alliance. This is how this became a tool for the Britishers to extend the company’s rule in India.
State comes under the periphery of the policy
‘The Nizam of Hyderabad’ was the first victim of this policy. In the year 1798, the English detached the Nizam from the French influence and also forbade them from having any alliances with the Marathas without British consent.
In 1799, Mysore entered into the subsidiary alliance with the Britishers.
In 1801, Wellesley compelled the Nawab of Awadh to accept the Policy of Subsidiary Alliance.
In the year 1802, Peshwa Baji Rao II also subjugated his state under this policy. Following this, many Maratha states like Bhosle and Scindia also accepted the terms of the policy in 1803.
Lastly, the last Maratha Confederation under the Holkars too accepted the terms of the subsidiary alliance.
The Policy of Subsidiary Alliance was in the real sense, a document of losing sovereignty. Under this, the native state did not have the rights of self defence, of settling its disputes with its neighbours, of maintaining diplomatic relations or of employing any other foreign experts.
Advantages of Subsidiary Alliance System to the Britishers
The subsidiary alliance was advantageous to the British from all points of view. It brought the following benefits to the English:
Since the French could not be employed in the courts of the native rulers, their influence was completely wiped out. The native rulers were separated from each other because the foreign policy of state under subsidiary alliance was controlled by the English.
The English expanded the area of their influence. The native ruler who accepted the subsidiary alliance was entirely dependent on the English due to the presence of the force within his territory. Therefore, the English gradually became the de facto rulers of his state. And the native rulers were reduced to being the British ‘protectorate’.
The Britishers, on the other hand, were able to maintain a large military force at the expense of the native rulers. The maintenance of the British army was provided for by the native state. The subsidiary forces which were kept in the territories of different rulers could be effectively utilized by the English against any one of them.
Since the maintenance of the subsidiary force was very expensive, It put heavy financial toil on the native Indian ruler which he mostly failed to bear. The Britishers, therefore, under the policy of subsidiary alliance forced him to surrender more of his territory. Thus, it helped in further expansion of the Company’s territory in India.
Disadvantages of Subsidiary Alliance System to the Native Rulers
The subsidiary alliance, however, was completely disadvantageous to the native Indian rulers and their subjects. A few disadvantages of subsidiary alliance system were as follows:
The native Indian ruler gradually lost most of his fertile and strategically important territories to the English.
It pushed the subjects of the native state to a life of poverty and impoverishment as the whole financial burden of maintaining the army finally fell on them.
Ideally, under the policy, English residents were exempted from interfering in the internal administration of the native ruler. But, in practice, the Brisihers controlled the rulers in every state-matter.
The native rulers gradually lost their respect, patriotism and even their core responsibility to rule their and strengthen their armies. This resulted in the loss of their character and capacity to rule their states which eventually made it easier for the Britishers to take complete charge of the state.
The subjects of the state were no more in a position to dethrone their incapable or cruel ruler by revolting against him because the English, with much larger resources than a single ruler, protected every allied ruler against every foreign aggression and internal revolt. Thus, the Britishers, under this policy, took complete control of the affairs of the state making the native ruler and his subjects extremely helpless.
B. Lord William Bentinck and his reforms (1828-1835)
Introduction
Lord William Bentinck assumed the office of the Governor- General in 1828. Born in 1774 he commenced his career as a soldier and later at the young age of twenty two he became a Member of Parliament. He was appointed the Governor of Madras in 1803. He supported Sir Thomas Munroe on revenue administration. The Vellore Mutiny of 1806 had resulted in Bentinck’s recall.
However, his appointment again to the higher office as Governor-General shows his real greatness. As Governor-General, Bentinck had initiated an era of progress and reforms. He was undoubtedly the first Governor-General of British India who acted on the dictum that “the welfare of the subject peoples was a main, perhaps the primary, duty of the British in India.
Policy towards Indian States
William Bentinck adopted a policy of non-intervention and non-aggression with Indian states. If at all he interfered in the affairs of the Indian states, it was only to end any form of misgovernment and never to annex any territory.
Mysore: In Mysore, Hindu rule under Krishnaraja III was restored by Wellesley. In the beginning, the young Raja functioned well along with his able minister Puranaiya. Later, when the young raja assumed full control of the government he proved incompetent. The peasantry of the state suffered from many grievances.
There was no redressal. Consequently, a revolt of the peasants broke out in 1830 and it was suppressed with the help of an army from Madras. Nonetheless, the British authorities took over the administration of Mysore State and placed it under the control of a commissioner. The Raja was given a pension.
Cachar and Jaintia: The principality of Cachar lying in the North East Frontier came under the protection of the British in accordance with the Treaty of Yandaboo concluded at the end of the first Burmese War. The Raja of this small state was assassinated in 1832 but there was no heir to succeed him.
Bentinck annexed this state at the wish of the people. Jaintia was one of the territories brought under the custody of the British after the first Anglo-Burmese War. The ruler of the small country behaved in an unruly way by abducting a few subjects of British India with the evil intention of sacrificing them to the goddess Kali. Therefore, the Governor-General acted promptly to avert any recurrence of such cruel abhorrent act and annexed this country.
Coorg: Vira Raja was a ruthless ruler of Coorg who treated his people with savage barbarity and killed all his male relatives. Lord William Bentinck decided to deal with him effectively and sent Colonel Lindsay to capture Mercara, the capital of the Coorg state. The Raja was deposed in 1834 and the state was annexed.
Relations with Ranjit Singh: Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor-General to visualize a Russian threat to India. Hence, he was eager to negotiate friendly relations both with the ruler of Punjab, Maharajah Ranjit Singh and also with the Amirs of Sind. His earnest desire was that Afghanistan should be made a buffer state between India and any possible invader. As an initial measure, an exchange of gifts took place between Lahore, the capital of Punjab and Calcutta, the seat of Governor-General.
It was then followed by the meeting of Bentinck and Ranjit Singh on 25 October, 1831 at Rupar on the bank of the river Sutlej amidst show and splendor. The Governor-General was successful in winning the friendship of Ranjit Singh and the Indus Navigation Treaty was concluded between them. This treaty opened up the Sutlej for navigation. In addition, a commercial treaty was negotiated with Ranjit Singh. A similar treaty was also concluded with the Amirs of Sind.
Reforms of Lord William Bentinck
The advent of Lord William Bentinck ushered in a new era in the annals of India in many ways. Although his tenure of office covered only a short span of seven years, it saw a period of enduring reforms. They may be classified as financial, administrative, social and educational.
Financial Reforms
When Bentinck assumed the Governor-Generalship in 1828, the financial position of the Company was poor. The exchequer was very weak. The state budget showed a deficit of one million rupees. It became necessary on the part of the Governor-General to take effective steps to improve the financial condition. To achieve this he adopted the following measures:
He reduced the salaries and allowances of all officers and additional staff were removed.
In the military department, he abolished the system of double batta. (an allowance to troops on active service.)
By these financial reforms at the time of his departure, he left the treasury with a surplus of Rs.1.5 million.
Administrative Reforms
Bentinck’s administrative reforms speak of his political maturity and wisdom. In the judicial department he abolished the provincial courts of appeal established by Cornwallis. They were largely responsible for the huge arrears of cases. This step was readily accepted by the Directors since it cut down their expenditure.
Another good measure of Bentinck was the introduction of local languages in the lower courts and English in the higher courts in the place of Persian. Even in matters of revenue Bentinck left his mark. He launched the revenue settlements of the North West Province under the control of R.M. Bird. This settlement was for a period of 30 years and it was made either with the tillers of the soil, or with the landowners.
Social Reforms
The social reforms of William Bentinck made his name immortal in the history of British India. These include the abolition of Sati, the suppression of Thugs and the prevention of female infanticide.
Abolition of Sati: The practice of sati, the age old custom of burning of widows alive on the funeral pyre of their husbands was prevalent in India from ancient times. This inhuman social custom was very common in northern India more particularly in Bengal. Bentinck was greatly distressed when he received a report of 800 cases of sati in a single year.
He determined to abolish this practice which he considered an offence against natural justice. Therefore, he became a crusader against it and promulgated his Regulation XVII on 4 December 1829 prohibiting the practice of sati. Those who practiced sati were made liable for punishment by law courts as accessories to the crime. The Regulation was extended to the Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830.
Suppression of Thugs: The most commendable measure which Bentinck undertook and which contributed to the material welfare of the people was the suppression of the ‘thugs’. They were hereditary robbers. They went about in small groups of fifty to hundred posing as commercial gangs or pilgrims ‘strangling and robbing peaceful travellers’. They increased in number in central and northern India during the 18th century when anarchy reigned after the disintegration of the Mughal Empire.
A campaign was systematically organised by Colonel Sleeman from 1830 against the thugs. During the course of five years nearly 2000 of them were captured. A greater number of them were exterminated and the rest were transported to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. For his role in the suppression of thugs, Sir William Sleeman was known as “Thugee Sleeman”.
Female Infanticide: Female infanticide was one of the horrible and heartless deeds committed even by civilized people. This practice killing female infants was very much prevalent in places like Rajputana, Punjab, Malwa and Cutch. Bentinck took effective steps to prevent the ritual of child sacrifice at Saugar Island in Bengal. He not only prohibited female infanticide but declared them as punishable crime.
Educational reforms
The introduction of English Education was a significant event of Lord William Bentinck’s administration. He appointed a committee headed by Lord Macaulay to make recommendations for the promotion of education.
In his report, Macaulay emphasized the promotion of European literature and science through English medium to the people of India. This recommendation was wholeheartedly accepted by William Bentinck.
The Government Resolution in 1835 made English the official and literary language of India. In the same year, William Bentinck laid foundation of the Calcutta Medical College.
Estimate of Lord William Bentinck
Bentinck was a “straightforward, honest, upright, benevolent, sensible man”.
His social reforms such as abolition of sati and prevention of child sacrifice eradicated age old evils from Hindu society.
It is heartwarming to note that “Bentinck acted where others had talked”.
To enforce the regulations regarding the prohibition of sati, he was prepared to risk his own position. Such courage and straightforwardness were seldom found among the administrators of those days.
His educational reforms heralded a new age in India.
C. Lord Dalhousie
Lord Dalhousie (Real name James Andrew Ramsay) served as Governor General of India from 1848 to 1856. During this period, Second Anglo-Sikh War (1849) was fought in which the Sikhs were defeated again and Dalhousie was successful in annexing the whole of Punjab to the British administration. He annexed many states by doctrine of lapse. During his tenure, first railway line between Bombay and Thane was opened in 1853 and in the same year Calcutta and Agra were connected by telegraph. His other reforms include setting up of P.W.D. and passing of the Widow Remarriage Act (1856).
The first major conflict during the early period of Lord Dalhousie was the Second Anglo Sikh war in 1848-49, which ended with annexation of Punjab and end of Sikh Kingdom. After the Treaty of Lahore, Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed at the Lahore Darbar to control the policies. He left England due to some disease, and in his place a lawyer named Sir Frederick Currie was appointed at the Lahore Durbar.
Sir Frederick Currie, was a legalist and a puritan, who asked the somewhat independent Governor of Multan, Diwan Mulraj to pay arrears of the taxes. When the British officers were sent at the Mulraj’s fortress, he revolted, attacked and wounded them. These wounded officers were saved by some people but the angry mob killed them the next day. The small army of Mul Raj was defeated, but again there was a rebellion. The war prolonged for months and Sikhs were defeated. The whole of Punjab was annexed on 29 March 1849.
Rani Jind Kaur was imprisoned and the 11 year old Maharaja Duleep Singh was sent to London to retire on pension. This was a major success under Lord Dalhousie, who not only subdued the rebellions in the region, but also annexed a large territory to the British India.
Second Anglo-Burmese War 1852-53
After the First Anglo-Burmese war, the Treaty of Yandaboo was signed between Burma and East India Company on February 24, 1826. For next 20 years the relations were normal, but the Burma Kings were chaffed of the English merchants who started flocking in the country and got settled over there.
In 1851, these merchants complained their overlords sitting in Calcutta about the oppression of the Burmese officials at Rangoon. The issue was taken seriously by the East India Company and the Lord Dalhousie asked Burma for compensation. No reply was sent from the other end. The idea was to make it a reason for an imposed war on Burma.
Apart from tha, there were minor bilateral issues regarding the Treaty of Yandaboo. However, exactly under which circumstances, this war was fought was not made public. The war started in April 5, 1852 and as soon as the war started the port of Martaban was taken on the same day. On 12th April Rangoon was annexed and in June Pegu was taken. In January 1853, a proclamation of annexation was read out and thus this war ended without any treaty signed. The outcome of this war was that Pegu was annexed to the British Empire and it was renamed Lower Burma. British dominion now was from Chittagong to Singapore in the East.
Doctrine of Lapse
Dalhousie implemented the Doctrine of Lapse whereby in the absence of a natural heir, the sovereignty of Indian states was to lapse to the British and such rulers were not permitted to adopt a son to inherit their kingdoms.
Dalhousie himself was not the author of this doctrine. In 1844, the Directors of the Company had declared that the permission to adopt on the failure of natural heirs “should be the exception not the rule” and should never be granted but as a special mark of favour or approbation”.
As per this doctrine, on the failure of natural heirs, the sovereignty passed on the paramount power. Although it was not a policy of Dalhauise’s predecessors, but he found it convenient way of extending Company’s territories.
We note here that Dalhousie practically applied this doctrine on dependent states only. The dependent states were one of the three categories of states as follows.
Those rulers who did not pay any tribute to the British Government and never accepted the paramountcy of the British power in India were under independent States
Those States and Rajas who had accepted the paramountcy of the British Government and paid a regular tribute. They were called Protected allies.
Those Rajas and Chieftains who had been placed or installed on the throne by the British Government and had been given letter of authority for their re-installation as Rajas; were called dependent States.
The second category mentioned above needed to take necessary permission from the company for adopting son to succeed to throne. The permission was dependent on personal whim and wish of British. It was third category which was not allowed to adopt a son at all.
Application of the Doctrine
Annexation of Satara
The Raja of Satara died in 1848 without leaving any natural heir. However, he had adopted a son before his death. But this adoption was declared invalid on the pretext that he had not taken the sanction for the same. The Court of Directors declared that a dependent principality like that of Satara could not pass on to an adopted son without the consent of the paramount power. Satara was thus annexed to the British Empire. This annexation was unjust because British had entered into a treaty on the basis of equality.
Annexation of Nagpur
Raja of Nagpur had died in 1853 and before his death he had directed his Rani to adopt a son. Rani adopted Yashwant Rao as per Hindu customs and law. But this annexation was not recognized by Dalhousie and Nagpur was annexed.
Annexation of Jhansi
After the death of Rao Ram Chandra in 1835 his adopted son had not been recognised by the British who placed Raghunath Rao on the throne of Jhansi. Raghunath Rao was succeeded by Gangadhar Rao who died in 1853. Before his death he had adopted Anand Rao as his son. Dalhousie refused to recognise him and annexed the State of Jhansi. Laxmi Bai of Jhansi played a very prominent role in the mutiny of 1857 in order to take her revenge.
Annexation of Sambhalpur
In the case of Sambhalpur the deceased Raja had not adopted any son. In 1849 before his death he had expressed the view that his people might obtain the protection of the British after his death. Consequently Dalhousie annexed the State of Sambalpur.
Annexation of Jaitpur
The State of Jaitpur {in Bundelkhand} was also annexed to the British dominion because its ruler died in 1849 without leaving an issue.
Annexation of Bhagat
It was a petty hill State in Punjab and was annexed for want of natural heir to the throne after the death of its ruler in 1850.
Annexation of Udaipur
The State was annexed to the British dominion in 1852 when its ruler did leaving no heir to the throne.
Criticism of the Doctrine of Lapse
The distinction between independent allies, dependent and subordinate states was only an artificial one. Any State could be annexed by merely stating that it was a dependent State. There was not court of appeal to challenge the decision of the Court of Directors of the Company. Lord Dalhousie applied the doctrine to serve the imperial designs. His highhandedness becomes quite evident from the fact that some of his decisions were set aside by the Court of Directors. They did not allow the annexation of State of Kasouli. The States of Bhagat and Udaipur were also restored to their former Rajas by Lord Canning.
Annexation of Oudh 1856
The Punjab and Pegu were the conquests of war. The states of Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, and Sambhalpur had fallen in by the “Doctrine of Lapse“. The Kingdom of Oudh was the only great Indian state whose ruler Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was dispossessed on the ground of “intolerable misgovernment”. The British alleged that the Nawab who had made a treaty with Lord Wellesley to establish such a system of administration as would be conducive to the “prosperity of the subjects” were entirely and continuously neglected and the whole of Awadh had fallen into the constantly increasing confusion, violent disorders, tumults, brigandage and widespread oppression of the people. Awadh was annexed finally in February 1856 via a proclamation and before the end of this month, the tenure of Lord Dalhousie ended and he was replaced with the Governor Generalship of Lord Canning.
Indian Railway Begins Journey 1853
On April 16, 1853 a train with 14 railway carriages and 400 guests left Bombay’s Bori Bunder for Thane, with a 21-gun salute. The three locomotives were Sindh, Sultan, and Sahib. This 75 minutes journey was the first Journey of Indian Railway that embarked an era of development thereafter.
Telegraph begins in India 1854
The 800-mile telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra was opened in March, 1854, and two years later 4000 miles were in operation, including lines to Bombay and Madras. The telegraph played an important role during those times and is credited to have saved India in mutiny of 1857. Telegraph communication between India and England was opened in 1865 by the Persian Gulf line.
Other notes about Lord Dalhousie
During the times of Lord Dalhousie, a separate Lieutenant Governor was appointed for the Presidency of Bengal so that it could immediately relive the Governor General of India from the pressure of local administration. In April 1854. Fredrick J Halliday was appointed the First Lieutenant Governor General of Bengal under the provisions of Charter act of 1853
The cool hill town of Shimla was made the summer capital of the British Empire.
The Artillery headquarters of the army was moved from Calcutta to Meerut. The army headquarter was shifted to Shimla.
It was during Lord Dalhousie’s time that Gurkha regiments came into force.
The Postal system was improved and all important towns were linked by the Telegraph lines.
The important reform during this period was Wood’s Dispatch of 1854.
Wood’s Despatch of 1854
Charles Wood, a British Liberal politician and Member of Parliament sent the “Wood’s despatch” to the Governor General Lord Dalhousie recommending some important changes in education system. As per this despatch:
An education department was to be set in every province.
Universities on the model of the London University be established in big cities such as Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.
At least one government school be opened in every district.
Affiliated private schools should be given grant in aid.
The Indian natives should be given training in their mother tongue also.
Wood’s Despatch is called Magnacarta of English Education in India.
In accordance with Wood’s despatch, Education Departments were established in every province and universities were opened at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857 on the model of the London University.
Later more universities were opened in Punjab in 1882 and at Allahabad 1887.
Unit- III New Revenue Systems and Indian Revolts
A. Land Revenue Systems in British India
Land revenue was one of the major sources of income for Britishers in India. There were broadly three types of land revenue policies in existence during the British rule in India.
Before independence, there were three major types of land tenure systems prevailing in the country:
The Zamindari System
The Mahalwari System
The Ryotwari System
The basic difference in these systems was regarding the mode of payment of land revenue.
The Zamindari System
The zamindari system was introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 through Permanent Settlement that fixed the land rights of the members in perpetuity without any provision for fixed rent or occupancy right for actual cultivators.
Under the Zamindari system, the land revenue was collected from the farmers by the intermediaries known as Zamindars.
The share of the government in the total land revenue collected by the zamindars was kept at 10/11th, and the remainder going to zamindars.
The system was most prevalent in West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, UP, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
The Permanent Settlement Agreement
According to the Permanent Land revenue settlement the Zamindars were recognised as the permanent owners of the land.
They were given instruction to pay 89% of the annual revenue to the state and were permitted to enjoy 11% of the revenue as their share.
The Zamindars were left independent in the internal affairs of their respective districts.
Issues with the Zamindari System
For the Cultivators: In villages, the cultivators found the system oppressive and exploitative as the rent they paid to the zamindar was very high while his right on the land was quite insecure.
The cultivators often had to take loan to pay the rents, on failing to pay the rent, they were evicted from the land.
For the Zamindars: The revenue had been fixed so high that the zamindars found it difficult to pay, and those who failed to pay the revenue lost their zamindari.
The zamindars were not so keen about improving the land. As long as they could give out the land and get rent, they preferred it.
For the Company:
Although this meant an increase in the income of Zamindars, it was no gain for the company since it could not increase a revenue demand that had been settled permanently.
The Ryotwari System
In the British territories in southern India, there was a move away from the idea of Permanent Settlement.
A system that came to be known as the Ryotwari System, was devised by Captain Alexander Read and Sir Thomas Munro at the end of the 18th century and introduced by the latter when he was governor of Madras Presidency (1819–26).
Under the Ryotwari system, the land revenue was paid by the farmers directly to the state.
In this system, the Individual cultivator called Ryot had full rights regarding sale, transfer, and leasing of the land.
The ryots could not be evicted from their land as long as they paid the rent.
It was prevalent in most of southern India, first introduced in Tamil Nadu. It was later extended to Maharashtra, Berar, East Punjab, Coorg and Assam.
The advantages of this system were the elimination of middlemen, who often oppressed villagers.
Issues with the Ryotwari System
This system gave much power to subordinate revenue officials, whose activities were inadequately supervised.
The system was dominated by the mahajans and moneylenders who granted loans to cultivators by mortgaging their land.
The moneylenders exploited the cultivators and evicted them from their land in case of loan default.
The Mahalwari System
By the early 19th century, the Company officials were convinced that the system of revenue had to be changed again.
The revenues cannot be fixed permanently at such a time when the Company needed more money to meet its expenses of administration and trade.
In 1822, Englishman Holt Mackenzie devised a new system known as the Mahalwari System in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency (most of this area is now in Uttar Pradesh).
Under the Mahalwari system, the land revenue was collected from the farmers by the village headmen on behalf of the whole village (and not the zamindar).
The entire village was converted into one bigger unit called ‘Mahal’ and was treated as one unit for the payment of land revenue.
The revenue under the Mahalwari system was to be revised periodically and not fixed permanently.
The system was popularised by Lord William Bentick in Agra and Awadh and was later extended to Madhya Pradesh and Punjab.
Issue with the Mahalwari System
A major drawback of the system was that the survey was practically based on faulty assumptions which left a space for manipulations and corruption.
At times, it made the Company spend more for the collection than the revenue collected. Consequently, the system was regarded as a failure.
Conclusion
Optimistic officials had imagined that the new system would transform the Peasants into rich enterprising farmers but this did not happen.
Driven by the desire to increase the income from land, revenue officials fixed too high a revenue demand that peasants were unable to pay.
Consequently, the Ryots fled the countryside and villages became deserted in many regions.
Some Other Systems
Taluqdari System
The term ‘taluqdar’ has different meanings in different parts of India. In Oudh, taluqdar is a great landholder.
But in Bengal, a taluqdar is next to zamindar in extent of land control and social status.
The big zamindars themselves had created many taluqs under several denominations, such as, junglburi taluq, mazkuri taluq, shikimi taluq, and so on.
These were created partly as a strategy of zamindari management and partly as a fiscal policy measure for raising zamindari funds for specific purposes.
After the Permanent Settlement, new varieties of taluqs were created by zamindars.
Under the pressure of the Permanent Settlement, many zamindars were creating dependent taluqs denominated as pattani taluq, noabad taluq and osat taluq.
Malguzari System
The land tenure prevailing in the erstwhile Central Provinces was known as Malguzari system in which the Malguzar was merely a revenue farmer under the Marathas.
When the Marathas came into power in this region, they farmed out the revenues of villages to persons of influence and wealth, who were called Malguzars.
During the British Rule, they were given proprietary rights and were held responsible for payment of revenue.
If the headman of a village was weak or was for any other reason, unable to answer for the sum the authorities expected, or if a court favourite wanted the village, the headman was replaced without hesitation by a farmer.
The farmer, or manager was at first called Mukaddam (the Hindi or Marathi form of Arabic Mugaddam).
Under the Malguzari system, the Lambardar/Sadar Lambardar appointed from among the Malguzars, was the revenue engager.
Other cultivators were either Absolute occupancy tenant, Occupancy tenant, Sub-tenant, Raiyat-Malik or lessees, who could be ejected from their holdings on various grounds. Malguzar (proprietor or co-sharer) held land under special description, namely, Sir land and Khudkasht land.
B. The Revolt of 1857
The Indian Mutiny of 1857-59 was a widespread but unsuccessful rebellion against the rule of British East India Company in India which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British crown.
The Revolt
It was the first expression of organised resistance against the British East India Company
It began as a revolt of the sepoys of the British East India Company’s army but eventually secured the participation of the masses.
The revolt is known by several names: the Sepoy Mutiny (by the British Historians), the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion (by the Indian Historians), the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and the First War of Independence (by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar).
Causes of The Revolt
Political Cause
British policy of expansion: The political causes of the revolt were the British policy of expansion through the Doctrine of Lapse and direct annexation.
A large number of Indian rulers and chiefs were dislodged, thus arousing fear in the minds of other ruling families who apprehended a similar fate.
Rani Lakshmi Bai’s adopted son was not permitted to sit on the throne of Jhansi.
Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi were annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse.
Jaitpur, Sambalpur and Udaipur were also annexed.
The annexation of Awadh by Lord Dalhousie on the pretext of maladministration left thousands of nobles, officials, retainers and soldiers jobless. This measure converted Awadh, a loyal state, into a hotbed of discontent and intrigue.
Doctrine of lapse:
The notable British technique called the Doctrine of Lapse was first perpetrated by Lord Dalhousie in the late 1840s.
It involved the British prohibiting a Hindu ruler without a natural heir from adopting a successor and, after the ruler died or abdicated, annexing his land.
To those problems added the growing discontent of the Brahmans, many of whom had been dispossessed of their revenues or had lost lucrative positions.
Social and Religious Cause
The rapidly spreading Western Civilisation in India was alarming concerns all over the country.
An act in 1850 changed the Hindu law of inheritance enabling a Hindu who had converted into Christianity to inherit his ancestral properties.
The people were convinced that the Government was planning to convert Indians to Christianity.
The abolition of practices like sati and female infanticide,
Introducing western methods of education was directly challenging the orthodoxy for Hindus as well as Muslims
Even the introduction of the railways and telegraph was viewed with suspicion.
Economic Cause
In rural areas, peasants and zamindars were infuriated by the heavy taxes on land and the stringent methods of revenue collection followed by the Company.
Many among these groups were unable to meet the heavy revenue demands and repay their loans to money lenders, eventually losing the lands that they had held for generations.
Large numbers of sepoys belonged to the peasantry class
After the Industrial Revolution in England, there was an influx of British manufactured goods into India, which ruined industries, particularly the textile industry of India.
Indian handicraft industries had to compete with cheap machine- made goods from Britain.
Military Causes
Revolt of 1857 began as a sepoy Themutiny:
Indian sepoys formed more than 87% of the British troops in India but were considered inferior to British soldiers.
An Indian sepoy was paid less than a European sepoy of the same rank.
They were required to serve in areas far away from their homes.
In 1856 Lord Canning issued the General Services Enlistment Act which required that the sepoys must be ready to serve even in British land across the sea.
Lord Canning
Charles John Canning was the statesman and governor general of India during the Indian Mutiny of 1857.
He became the first viceroy of India in 1858.
The important events during his tenure include:
The Mutiny of 1857, which he was able to suppress successfully
Passing of Indian Councils Act, 1861 which introduced portfolio system in India
Withdrawal of “Doctrine of Lapse” which was one of the main reasons of mutiny of 1858
Introduction of Code of Criminal Procedure
Enactment of Indian High Courts Act
Indian Penal Code (1858)
Immediate Cause
The Revolt of 1857 eventually broke out over the incident of greased cartridges.
A rumour spread that the cartridges of the new enfield rifles were greased with the fat of cows and pigs.
Before loading these rifles the sepoys had to bite off the paper on the cartridges.
Both Hindu and Muslim sepoys refused to use them.
Lord Canning tried to make amends for the error and the offending cartridges were withdrawn but the damage had already been done. There was unrest in several places.
In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a sepoy in Barrackpore, had refused to use the cartridge and attacked his senior officers.
He was hanged to death on 8th April.
On 9th May, 85 soldiers in Meerut refused to use the new rifle and were sentenced to ten years’ imprisonment.
Centres of The Revolt
The revolt spread over the entire area from the neighbourhood of Patna to the borders of Rajasthan. The main centres of revolt in these regions namely Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi, Gwalior and Arrah in Bihar.
Lucknow: it was the capital of Awadh. Begum Hazrat Mahal, one of the begums of the ex-king of Awadh, took up the leadership of the revolt.
Kanpur: the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
He joined the revolt primarily because he was deprived of his pension by the British.
The victory was short- lived. Kanpur was recaptured by the British after fresh reinforcements arrived.
The revolt was suppressed with terrible vengeance.
Nana Saheb escaped but his brilliant commander Tantia Tope continued the struggle.
Tantia Tope was finally defeated, arrested and hanged.
Jhansi: the twenty-two-year-old Rani Lakshmi Bai led the rebels when the British refused to accept the claim of her adopted son to the throne of Jhansi.
She fought gallantly against the British forces but was ultimately defeated by the English.
Gwalior: After Rani Lakshmi Bai escaped, she was joined by Tantia Tope and together they marched to Gwalior and captured it.
Fierce fighting followed where the Rani of Jhansi fought like a tigress but died, fighting to the very end.
Gwalior was recaptured by the British.
Bihar: the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh who belonged to a royal house of Jagdispur, Bihar.
Suppression and The Revolt
The Revolt of 1857 lasted for more than a year. It was suppressed by the middle of 1858.
On July 8, 1858, fourteen months after the outbreak at Meerut, peace was finally proclaimed by Lord Canning.
Places of Revolt Indian Leaders British Officials who suppressed the revolt
Delhi Bahadur Shah II - John Nicholson
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal -Henry Lawrence
Kanpur Nana Saheb -Sir Colin Campbell
Jhansi & Gwalior Lakshmi Bai & Tantia Tope -General Hugh Rose
Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan - Sir Colin Campbell
Allahabad and Banaras- Maulvi Liyakat Ali -Colonel Oncell
Bihar. Kunwar Singh -William Taylor
Why did the Revolt Fail?
Limited uprising: although the revolt was fairly widespread, a large part of the country remained unaffected by it.
The revolt was mainly confined to the Doab region.
The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, did not join the rebellion
The southern provinces did not take part in it.
No effective leadership: the rebels lacked an effective leader. Although Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope and Rani Lakshmi Bai were brave leaders, they could not offer effective leadership to the movement as a whole.
Limited resources: the rebels lacked resources in terms of men and money. The English, on the other hand, received a steady supply of men, money and arms in India.
No participation of the middle class: The English educated middle class, the rich merchants, traders and zamindars of Bengal helped the British to suppress the revolt.
Results of The Revolt
End of company rule: the great uprising of 1857 was an important landmark in the history of modern India.
The revolt marked the end of the East India Company’s rule in India.
Direct rule of the British Crown: India now came under the direct rule of the British Crown.
This was announced by Lord Canning at a Durbar in Allahabad in a proclamation issued on 1 November 1858 in the name of the Queen.
The Indian administration was taken over by Queen Victoria, which, in effect, meant the British Parliament.
The India office was created to handle the governance and the administration of the country.
Religious tolerance: it was promised and due attention was paid to the customs and traditions of India.
Administrative change: the Governor General’s office was replaced by that of the Viceroy.
The rights of Indian rulers were recognised.
The Doctrine of Lapse was abolished.
The right to adopt sons as legal heirs was accepted.
Military reorganisation: the ratio of British officers to Indian soldiers increased but the armoury remained in the hands of the English. It was arranged to end the dominance of the Bengal army.
Conclusion
The revolt of 1857 was an unprecedented event in the history of British rule in India. It united, though in a limited way, many sections of Indian society for a common cause.Though the revolt failed to achieve the desired goal, it sowed the seeds of Indian nationalism.
* Books written on the Revolt of 1857
The Indian War of Independence by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
Rebellion, 1857: A Symposium by Puran Chand Joshi
The Indian Mutiny of 1857 by George Bruce Malleson
Great Mutiny by Christopher Hibbert
Religion and Ideology of the Rebels of 1857 by Iqbal Hussain
Excavation of Truth: Unsung Heroes of 1857 War of Independence by Khan Mohammad Sadiq Khan.
Unit-IV Reforms of Viceroy’s in India
A. Lord Lytton 1876
Lord Lytton, who remained the Viceroy of India from 1876-1880 used to write poems with the Pen name of Owen Meredith. During his tenure, a Royal Titles Act conferring on the queen Victoria the title of the Empress of India was passed and a magnificent Delhi Darbar was organized in 1877 in which queen Victoria was adorned with title Qaiser-i-Hind. Aligarh College was founded in 1877 and the Vernacular Press act, Arms act were passed in 1878. The age for eligibility in civil services was brought down from 21 to 18 years. The second Anglo-Afghan war also fought during his tenure which proved to be very expensive.
Contents
1. Royal Titles Act 1876
2. Great Famine of 1876
3. Vernacular Press Act 1878
4. Second Anglo Afghan War 1878-80
5. Attempt to Murder and Resignation of Lord Lytton
6. Other Notes
Royal Titles Act 1876
The Royal Titles Act of 1876 was one of Prime Minister Disraeli’s famous imperialistic measures. The act was passed with the understanding that the British imperial title should be used only in India. Thus, the Queen began to use it in her signature in 1878 and in 1893 it appeared on the British coins. The title empress of India was officially translated as Kaisar-i-Hind, was decorated on her in 1877 Delhi Durbar.
Delhi Darbar 1877
A few months after his swearing in as India’s Viceroy, a Grand Darbar was organized at Delhi on January 1, 1877, in which Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress of India. Queen Victoria was proclaimed with title “Kaisar-i-Hind” at this Darbar.
When the princes of Indian princely states were flocking to participate in this gorgeous scene of Delhi Darbar, the shadow of famine was darkening over southern India.
Great Famine of 1876
The monsoons of 1876 had failed to bring their due supply of rain, and the season of 1877 was little better. This long-continued drought stretched from the Deccan to Cape Comorin, and subsequently invaded northern India, causing a famine more wide-spread than any previously known in Indian history.
The Poet Viceroy Lord Lytton was so uncompromising in implanting the British trading policies that was called directly responsible for the death of 10 million people in the Famine of 1876 -77 by some historians. The government is known to have spent 11 million sterling, but actually the lack of supply and efforts from the government caused the loss of life from starvation and a train of diseases that followed, taking the toll to a lamentable number.
Vernacular Press Act 1878
The latter half of the 19th century saw a remarkable growth in the Vernacular Press of the country and newspapers played a role of catalyst in the new socio-political consciousness. Earlier, the newspapers were being published in Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Allahabad only but later the newspapers started getting published from smaller places also. Since, most of the newspapers published from smaller places, they all were in vernacular languages. In 1878, when this act was passed, the there were 20 English Newspapers while 200. These vernacular newspapers made the people aware of the political affairs and now the people slowly started asking questions for their rights. So, in the best interest of the Government, Lord Lytton passed the Vernacular Press Act in 1878.
By this act, the magistrates of the districts were empowered, without the prior permission of the Government, to call upon a printer and publisher of any kind to enter into a Bond, undertaking not to publish anything which might “rouse” feelings of disaffection against the government.
The magistrate was also authorized to deposit a security, which could be confiscated if the printer violated the Bond.
If a printer repeated the violation, his press could be seized.
Thus the Vernacular Press Act of 1878 gagged the press and result was some proceedings against some vernacular press people. There was now a popular protest against this act. The act was later repealed by Lord Ripon, who followed Lord Lytton.
Second Anglo Afghan War 1878-80
In the winter of 1878, the affairs of Afghanistan again forced themselves into notice. The First Anglo Afghan war had ended in 1842, in a humiliation for the British and this failure kept haunting them for many years. The successive governments in Britain remain calm, but when Lord Disraeli became PM, he sent Lord Lytton to India to increase the influence in Afghanistan. On this side, under Akbar Khan, the son of Dost Mohammed, Afghanistan once again became independent and Dost Mohammad Khan came back to power in 1843. Akbar Khan died in 1845.
Treaty of Peshawar
In 1855 Treaty of Peshawar between Dost Mohammad and British reopened the diplomatic relations. After a series of incidents, Russia established a fixed boundary between Afghanistan and its territories in 1873. But within a period of 5 years the rivalry turned back. This was because of an uninvited diplomatic mission sent by the Russians to Kabul. The ruler Sher Ali Khan, son of Dost Mohammad Khan wanted to stop them, but failed. The British too wanted to send a mission, but Sher Ali refused. A diplomatic mission was ordered by Lord Lytton, the viceroy of British India, and the Mission was turned back. This triggered the Second Anglo Afghan War.
Treaty of Gandamak
In the second Anglo Afghan war, much of Afghanistan was occupied by British. Sher Ali was defeated and he fled towards Turkistan. Sher Ali’s Son, Mohammad Yaqub Khan signed a treaty of Gandamak in May, 1879 to prevent British Invasion in rest of the country. However, he paid the price by relinquishing the Control of Afghan Foreign Relations to British. British Control was thus extended to much of the country. He also agreed to receive a British Resident at Kabul.
The treaty of Gandamak was signed in May, 1879, but in the same year in September, the British Resident Major Cavagnari was murdered. This again triggered the war and Kabul was occupied. Yakub Khan surrendered and he was sent to Dehradun as a Prisoner.
Attempt to Murder and Resignation of Lord Lytton
At this crisis of affairs, there was a general election in England, which resulted in the defeat of the Conservative Ministry of Lord Disraeli. Lord Lytton also resigned simultaneously. Prior to that in 1879 an attempt was made to assassinate him, but he happily escaped uninjured. After his resignation, Lord Ripon was sent to India.
Other Notes
Mohammadan Anglo-Oriental College) was founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, the leader of Muslim renaissance in Indian subcontinent, in 1875 at Aligarh during the tenure of Lord Lytton. It later became Aligarh Muslim University.
Lucile was a verse novel written by Lord Lytton, published in 1860.
The Indian Arms Act of 1878 was legislated during Lord Lytton’s time. By this act, no Indians could keep unlicensed arms. However, the English people could hold arms without license.
Lord Lytton also was responsible for the economic distress caused by abolishing the Tax on the foreign cotton coming to India, to safeguard the British Traders.
The maximum age to enter in to the Civil Services Examination was reduced from 21 years to 19 years.
B. Lord Ripon – Viceroy of India (1880-1884)
Lord Ripon remained India’s Viceroy from 1880-84. This liberal politician is known for many reforms in the internal administration of India. The most important events during this time were as follows:
The Vernacular Press Act was repealed in 1882
A Resolution in 1882 set off the institution of local self-government in India.
Hunter Commission came in 1882 for the purpose of education reforms.
The age for entry in the Civil Services was once again raised to 21 years.
The First factory Act was enacted in 1881
Introduction of Ilbert Bill in severely compromised state.
The years 1882 and 1883 are memorable for these great measures. One important one was the repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, which was passed by his predecessor Lord Lytton in 1878.
Thus, he sat free the native journals from the last restrains on the free discussion of public questions. In 1882, he granted freedom to the Press. He was the founder of local self government in modern India and was fondly called “Ripon, the Good”.
Immediately after the Second Anglo Afghan War, Abdur Rahaman, the male heir of the Dost Muhammad stock was made the Amir of Afghanistan. The British Viceroy Lord Ripon withdrew the policy of disintegrating the Afghanistan and accepted it as a Buffer state (between British and Russian/ Persian territories), which later culminated in Durand Line. However they retained the rights to handle the foreign relations of Afghanistan. In 1885, a military skirmish occurred and the Russian encroached the Merv Oasis and an Afghan territory south of the Oxus River around an oasis at Panjdeh. (It is now in Turkmenistan). Later, possible war was averted with diplomacy of Lord Dufferin, who managed to secure a settlement. As per this settlement Russia kept the Merv Oasis, but relinquished further territories taken in their advance, and promised to respect Afghan territorial integrity in the future.
Local Self Government (Resolution of 1882)
Lord Ripon is known to have granted the Indians first taste of freedom by introducing the Local Self Government in 1882. His scheme of local self government developed the Municipal institutions which had been growing up in the country ever since India was occupied by the British Crown. He led a series of enactments in which larger powers of the Local self government were given to the rural and urban bodies and the elective people received some wider rights.
Lord Ripon is known as Father of Local Self Government in India. This was not enacted by any act; it was a resolution that was passed in 1882.
First Factory Act 1881
A committee was appointed in 1875 to inquire into the conditions of factory work in the country. This committee had favored some kind of legal restrictions in the form of factory laws.
During Lord Ripon’s time, the first Factories Act was adopted in 1881. Following this act, a Factory Commission was appointed in 1885. There was another Factories Act in 1891, and a Royal Commission on Labor was appointed in 1892. The result of these enactments was the limitation on the factory working hours. This was an answer of the Government to the pathetic conditions of the workers in the factory, wherein, only when a laborer exhausted, new laborer was to take his / her place.
Hunter Education Commission 1882-83
In 1882, Lord Ripon organized the Hunter Commission under William Wilson Hunter. William Wilson Hunter was the statistician, a compiler and a member of the Indian Civil Service, who later also became Vice President of Royal Asiatic Society.
He was appointed as a Magistrate in the Bengal Presidency in 1862, and form there only he started compiling the local traditions and records.
He published “The Annals of Rural Bengal” and “A Comparative Dictionary of the Non-Aryan Languages of India” but his best known work is “The Imperial Gazetteer of India” on which he started working in 1869.
This work was delegated to him by Lord Mayo. The work appeared in 9 volumes in 1881. In 1882 as a member of the Governor General in Council he was appointed he chairman of the Commission on Education. In 1886, he was also elected as Vice Chancellor of the Calcutta University. The Hunter Commission brought out the neglect to the primary and secondary education in the country. The commission recommended that the responsibility for the Primary Education must be given to the Local Boards and Municipal Boards. The important recommendations were as follows:
The government should take special care to extend the primary education.
There should be literary and vocational training in secondary education.
The commission brought out inadequate facilities available for the female education in the country.
The recommendations were partially implemented and there was a slow growth in the number of the secondary schools in the country.
Ilbert Bill 1884
Ilbert Bill is named after Courtenay Peregrine Ilbert, who was appointed as legal adviser to the Council of India. The bill was introduced in 1883 by Viceroy Ripon, who actually desired to abolish the racial prejudice from the Indian Penal Code. Ripon had proposed an amendment for existing laws in the country and to allow Indian judges and magistrates the jurisdiction to try British offenders in criminal cases at the District level. It was never allowed before.
So naturally, the Europeans living in India looked it as a Humiliation and the introduction of the bill led to intense opposition in Britain as well as India (by the British residents). So it was withdrawn but was reintroduced and enacted in 1884 in a severely compromised state.
The amended bill had the provisions that the Europeans would be conferred on European and Indian District Magistrates and Sessions Judges alike. However, a defendant would in all cases have the right to claim trial by a jury of which at least half the members must be European. Thus, this enactment held that Europeans criminals would be heard only by the Indian Judges “helped by the European Judges”.
The passage of this bill opened the eyes of the Indians and deepened antagonism between the British and Indians. The result was wider nationalism and establishment of Indian National Congress in the next year. The amended Ilbert Bill was passed on 25 January 1884, as the Criminal Procedure Code Amendment Act 1884. It came into force on May 1, 1884.
C. Reforms and Administration under Lord Curzon
George Nathaniel Curzon (11 January, 1859- 20 March, 1925) born in Kedleston Hall, England was a British statesman and foreign secretary who during his terms in office played a major role in British policy making.
Lord Curzon succeeded Lord Elgin and served as India’s Viceroy between 1899 and 1905.
He became the youngest Viceroy of India at the age of 39.
He was one of the most controversial and consequential holders of that post.
Before assuming office as governor general and viceroy, Curzon had visited India (four times) Ceylon, Afghanistan. China, Persia, Turkestan, Japan, and Korea.
No other governor general of India had such vast experience and ideas about the countries of the East as Lord Curzon.
Curzon’s Views Regarding India:
Lord Curzon was deeply a racist, and convinced of Britain’s “civilising mission” in India.
He described Indians as having “extraordinary inferiority in character, honesty and capacity”.
Curzon’s Foreign Policies
North-West Frontier Policy: Curzon, unlike his predecessors, pursued a policy of consolidation, strength and security of the British occupied territories in the north-west.
He kept Chitral under British control and constructed a road connecting Peshawar and Chitral thereby arranging for the security of Chitral.
The Khyber Pass, Khur Valley, Waziristan were places where small British troops were stationed by his predecessors. Lord Curzon withdrew them thereby removing the irritant to the tribal people.
Curzon’s north-western frontier policy while bringing peace in the north-west, reduced a huge cost.
Afghan Policy: Lord Curzon’s Afghan policy was conditioned by the political and economic interests, fear of Russian expansion in Central Asia and Persian Gulf area.
From the very start there was an estrangement of relations between Afghans and the British.
An agreement was signed between Abdur Rahman (the then Afghan Amir) and the British under which the latter had been committed to render financial help to Afghanistan, thus securing itself from any Afghan tensions.
Policy towards Persia: It was imperative for the British interest to maintain British influence in Persian Gulf area as Russia, France, Turkey were also trying to extend their influence in the region.
In order to secure British influence in that region Lord Curzon personally went to the Persian Gulf area in 1903 and took firm measures to protect the British interests there.
Relation with Tibet: Lord Curzon’s Tibet policy was also influenced by fear of Russian dominance in the region.
The Tibetans had signed a trade agreement with the British in 1890 but by the time Lord Curzon had come as the Viceroy, the trade relations between Tibet and British India had completely ceased.
It was Lord Curzon’s efforts that revived the trade relations between the two under which Tibet agreed to pay a huge indemnity to the British.
Reforms in Various Fields
Curzon believed in a strong centralized government and powerful bureaucracy.
Calcutta Corporation Act, 1899: The act reduced the number of elected legislatures and increased the number of nominated officials to deprive Indians from self-governance.
28 members of the Corporation resigned in protest and it, therefore, became a government department with the English and the Anglo-Indians as the majority in it.
Economic: In 1899, the British currency was declared legal tender in India and a pound was declared equivalent to rupees fifteen.
The rate of salt-tax was reduced by Curzon, from two-and-a-half rupees per maund (1 maund is equal to approximately 37 kg) to one-and-a-third rupees per maund.
People with annual income of more than Rs. 500 paid the tax. Moreover, income-tax payers also received relaxation.
The yearly savings of the provinces were taken over by the Central Government which left no inducement to the provinces for saving.
Curzon supported the policy of financial decentralization and abolished this practice.
Famine: When Curzon arrived in India, it was in a grip of terrible famine which affected the extensive territories in south, central and western India. Curzon provided all possible relief to the affected people.
People were provided work on payment basis and the cultivators were exempted from the payment of revenue.
By 1900, when the famine was over, Curzon appointed a Commission to probe into the causes of the famine and suggest preventive measures which were later brought into consideration.
Agriculture: In 1904, the Co-operative Credit Societies Act was passed to induce the people to form societies for the purpose of deposits and loans, mainly to save peasants from the clutches of the money-lenders who usually charged an exorbitant rate of interest.
In 1900, the Punjab Land Alienation Act was passed which restricted the transfer of lands of the peasants to money-lenders in cases of failure of payment of their debts.
Curzon attempted to bring about improvement in revenue administration for which he fixed three principles regarding it.
First, the revenue was to be increased only gradually.
Second, every care was to be taken not to harm the agriculture while collecting the revenue.
Third, in case of drought or any other difficult situation, the peasants were to be helped immediately.
Railways: Curzon decided to improve railway facilities in India and also to make the Railway profitable to the government.
He appointed a Railway Commission under the chairmanship of Mr. Robertson in 1901. The Commission submitted its report after two years and the recommendations were accepted by Curzon.
The Railway lines were increased, the Railway department was abolished and the management of the Railways was taken away from the hands of the Public Works Department and handed over to a Railway Board consisting of three members.
The Department of Railway was organised on a commercial basis, profit being its primary motive.
Education: In 1901, Curzon called an education conference at Shimla following which the University Commission was appointed in 1902.
The Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904 upon the recommendations of the commission.
Gurudas Banerjee, Calcutta HC judge and a member of the commission, had given his dissent-note in the report and the Indian public despised the Act but all in vain.
The aim of the act was to bring the Universities under the supervision of the government and it served its purpose.
Army: In 1902, Lord Kitchener came to India as the Commander-in-Chief and carried out much needed reforms in the army.
The Indian Army was divided into two commands, the Northern Command and the Southern Command.
There were three brigades in every division of the army, two of the Indian battalions and one of the English battalions.
The factories were established in India to produce guns, gunpowder and rifles and the army was equipped with the latest weapons.
To increase the efficiency of the soldiers, every battalion was subjected to a severe test called ‘the Kitchener Test’.
Judiciary: Under the judiciary reforms, the number of judges of the Calcutta High Court was increased, the salaries of the judges of the High Courts and subordinate courts were enhanced and the Indian Code of Civil Procedure was revised.
Monument Act, 1904: The Act established an Archaeological Department under a director.
It was assigned the responsibility of repair, restoration and protection of historical monuments.
Lord Curzon asked the native rulers to take similar measures in their respective states and urged the provincial governments to open museums for the safe preservation of rare objects.
Partition of Bengal
The partition of the undivided Bengal Presidency in 1905 was one of Curzon’s most criticised moves, which triggered widespread opposition not only in Bengal but across India, and gave impetus to the freedom movement.
Curzon’s Role in the Partition of Bengal:
Bengal was the most populous province of India, with around 8 crore people.
It comprised the present-day states of West Bengal, Bihar, parts of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Assam and present day Bangladesh.
In July 1905, Curzon announced the partition of the undivided Bengal Presidency.
A new province of East Bengal and Assam was announced, with a population of 3.1 crore with a Muslim-Hindu ratio of 3:2.
The western Bengal province was overwhelmingly Hindu.
Although the British claimed the partition was to make the administration of the large region easier, it was clear to the Bengal Congress and patriotic Indians that Curzon’s actual motive was to crush the increasingly loud political voices of the literate class in the province, and to provoke religious strife and opposition against them.
However, the protests against the partition did not remain confined to this class alone.
Impact of the Partition:
The partition provoked great resentment and hostility all over India. All sections of the Congress, the Moderates and the Radicals, opposed it.
The struggle that unfolded in the response, came to be known as the Swadeshi movement, was the strongest in Bengal but with echoes elsewhere too; in deltaic Andhra for instance, it was known as the Vandemataram Movement.
The protest was to boycott British goods, especially textiles, and promote swadeshi goods.
There were marches and demonstrations with the protesters singing Vande Mataram to underline their patriotism and challenge the colonialists.
Samitis emerged throughout Bengal, with several thousand volunteers.
Rabindranath Tagore led the marches at many places, and composed many patriotic songs, most famously ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ (My Golden Bengal), which is now the national anthem of Bangladesh.
The message of patriotism and Bengali nationalism was showcased in Jatras, or popular theatre.
Impact of the Protests:
Curzon left for Britain in 1905, but the agitation continued for many years.
Partition was finally reversed in 1911 by Lord Hardinge in the face of unrelenting opposition.
The Swadeshi movement, which had grown significantly during the agitation, later reached nationwide proportions.
The partition of Bengal and the highhanded behaviour of Curzon fired the national movement and the Congress.
Conclusion
In the book ‘Lion and the Tiger’ by Denis Judd, in “The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600-1947”, he wrote:
“Curzon had hoped to bind India permanently to the British Raj. Ironically, his partition of Bengal, and the bitter controversy that followed, did much to revitalize Congress.
Curzon, who addressed Congress in the 1900s as ‘tottering to its fall’, ultimately left India with Congress more active and effective than at any time in its history”.
Being an autocrat, Curzon’s courses of actions had caused a great amount of resentment among the Indians, yet considered from the point of view of efficiency, enterprise and initiative, he was one of the best governor generals of British India.
ಕಾಮೆಂಟ್ಗಳು
ಕಾಮೆಂಟ್ ಪೋಸ್ಟ್ ಮಾಡಿ